The development of a robust performance and capacity fade model for Na-ion battery (NIB) hard carbon anodes is critical to addressing key challenges in the commercialization and long-term viability of this emerging energy storage technology. Hard carbon is considered a promising anode material due to its high theoretical capacity and affordability, but it suffers from various challenges, including irreversible capacity loss, cycling instability, and side reactions. Understanding the mechanisms of these failures is essential for improving NIB efficiency, lifespan, and safety. A detailed model can capture the dynamic electrochemical processes, such as sodium ion intercalation, solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation, and structural changes in the hard carbon material, providing insights into the dominant factors driving capacity fade. By developing such a model, researchers can predict performance under different operating conditions, optimize material design, and guide the development of next-generation Na-ion batteries with enhanced durability and cost-effectiveness.
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